Antibodies Targeted to Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides

ABSTRACT

A compound comprising one or more polysaccharide moieties each independently represented by the formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]n-2,5-anhydromannose, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to 500, and R is H or an acyl group, is described. The compound can be manufactured by (a) reacting chitosan with an acylating agent sufficient to partially N-acylate the chitosan, yielding a modified chitin/chitosan mixed polymer; and (b) reacting the modified chitin/chitosan mixed polymer with a deaminating agent to cleave the mixed polymer at the unacylated chitosan moieties. The compound can be used to immunize against fungal infection. Antibodies specific to the compound, and the use of such antibodies to protect against fungal infection are also described.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A dramatic rise in the incidence of invasive fungal disease in recent years, as well as the emergence of drug resistant and previously rare fungal species, has highlighted the need for broadly effective new therapeutic and prophylactic antifungal treatment strategies (3-5). The increased incidence of invasive fungal infection is partly attributable to an increase in the immunocompromised patient population, owing to the growing number of patients with disease associated acquired immunodeficiencies, those in critical care units, patients undergoing surgery or immunosuppressive treatment, and those receiving organ or cellular transplant therapies. Importantly, the risk factors that predispose individuals to invasive fungal disease do not preclude the possibility of mounting an effective immune response and responding favorably to immunotherapy (6, 7), giving promise to the development of effective vaccine or immunotherapy based approaches to meet this underserved medical need.

The two most prevalent pathogenic fungi affecting humans, Aspergillus and Candida spp., account for an estimated 8-10% of all health care acquired infections, with an attributable mortality of 30-40% (5, 8). Candida species are the fourth leading cause of nosocomial sepsis cases in the US and the rising incidence of invasive fungal disease from all pathogenic fungi represents a significant healthcare burden worldwide. Excess healthcare costs due to increased length of stay and treatment of hospital acquired fungal infections are in the range of US$1 thousand million annually in the US alone. Furthermore, comprehensive antifungal susceptibility testing of clinical isolates has made it evident that, despite advances in safe and effective antifungal drugs, all classes of currently available antifungal agents are subject to the emergence of resistant strains (5). Cryptococcal meningitis, an infection with the fungus Cryptococcus also known as cryptococcosis, is a very serious opportunistic infection among people with advanced HIV/AIDS. Cryptococcosis is not contagious, meaning it cannot spread from person-to-person. Cryptococcal meningitis specifically occurs after Cryptococcus has spread from the lungs to the brain. A global problem, worldwide, approximately 1 million new cases of cryptococcal meningitis occur each year, resulting in 625,000 deaths. Most cases are opportunistic infections that occur among people with HIV/AIDS. Although the widespread availability of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in developed countries has helped reduce cryptococcal infections in these areas, it is still a major problem in developing countries where access to healthcare is limited. Throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Cryptococcus is now the most common cause of adult meningitis. Cryptococcal meningitis is one of the leading causes of death in HIV/AIDS patients; in sub-Saharan Africa, it may kill as many people each year as tuberculosis. (24).

These significant challenges of combating fungal disease point to the critical need for a highly effective pan-fungal vaccine as a valuable component of the anti-fungal arsenal. To date, two fungal cell wall carbohydrate components, β-mannan and β-glucan, have been explored as targets for anti-fungal vaccination. Conjugate vaccines composed of either linear β-(1→3)-glucan or β-(1→2)-mannotriose have been shown to confer protection against fungal disease, with efficacy in both active and passive immunization (9-11). In animal models of fungal disease, the β-glucan vaccine proved effective against C. albicans, A. fumigatus, and C. neoformans, validating the possibility of successful vaccination against multiple, disparate fungal pathogens (9, 12). Nevertheless, the production of effective vaccine responses requires careful consideration of the fine structure of the target antigens, as there is mounting evidence that one mechanism of immune evasion employed by fungal pathogens is the expression of immunodominant epitopes that induce non-protective or inhibitory antibody responses. These decoy epitopes ablate the efficacy of responses toward protective epitopes. For example, vaccines composed of linear β-(1→3)-glucan epitopes produce protective responses, while vaccines composed of β-(1→3)-glucans with β-(1→6)-glucan branches produce antibodies to both structures but do not confer protection against fungal disease (13, 14).

Moreover, the fundamental utility of the vaccine is dependent on the universality of target antigens. For example, the β-(1→2)-mannotriose epitope does not appear in all Candida species and the vaccine antigen employing this epitope relies on protective peptide epitopes to expand its utility (10). Considering the limited distribution of some cell wall carbohydrate epitopes and in view of the mechanisms employed by fungal pathogens to avoid productive immune responses to cell wall components, there is a need for a universally effective fungal vaccine. This invention is designed to target highly conserved fungal cell wall carbohydrate epitopes in order to provide a pan-fungal vaccine.

Chitin has not been examined as an antifungal vaccine target, largely for reasons related to its highly insoluble nature. Methods available in the art for degrading chitin into soluble fragments are not stoichiometrically controlled and it is thus difficult to modulate the degree of depolymerization.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention provides a compound comprising one or more polysaccharide moieties each independently represented by the formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]_(n)-2,5-anhydromannose, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to 500, and R is H or an acyl group.

This invention also provides a process for manufacturing a compound represented by the formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]_(n)-2,5-anhydromannose, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to 500, comprising:

(a) reacting chitosan with an amount of an acylating agent sufficient to partially N-acylate the chitosan, yielding a modified chitin/chitosan mixed polymer; (b) reacting the modified chitin/chitosan mixed polymer with a deaminating agent to cleave the mixed polymer at the unacylated chitosan moieties, yielding the compound of formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]_(n)-2,5-anhydromannose.

This invention provides a method of immunizing a mammalian subject against a fungal infection or pathogen, comprising administering to the subject an immunogenic amount of the compound or a composition containing it. This invention provides a method of stimulating an immune response in a mammalian subject against a fungal pathogen, comprising administering to the subject an immunogenic amount of the compound or a composition containing it. This invention also provides an antibody specific to the compound described above. And it provides a method of protecting a mammalian subject against a fungal infection or pathogen, comprising administering the antibody to the subject in an amount effective to protect the subject against the fungal infection.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Reaction scheme for the preparation of modified chitin fragments. Reaction scheme for the one pot preparation of modified chitin fragments from chitosan.

FIG. 2: Analysis of modified chitin conjugation to tetanus toxoid. Coomassie Blue stained SDS-PAGE gel showing conjugation of modified chitin fragments to tetanus toxoid (TT) protein.

FIG. 3: Dose and immunization schedule modified chitin-TT conjugate. Chart showing dose and immunization schedule for administration of modified chitin-TT conjugate vaccine to Balb/C mice.

FIG. 4: Immunogenicity of modified chitin-TT conjugate vaccine in Balb/C mice. Line plot showing immunogenicity of modified chitin-TT vaccine conjugate in Balb/C mice. The screening antigen was modified chitin cross linked to human serum albumin (HSA).

FIG. 5A: Specificity of immune response in Balb/C mice immunized with modified chitin-TT vaccine conjugate.

Line plot comparing inhibition of vaccine serum binding to modified chitin-HSA screening antigen.

FIG. 5B: Specificity of immune response in Balb/C mice immunized with modified chitin-TT vaccine conjugate.

Bar graph showing lack of cross reactivity of vaccine sera toward multiple GlcNAc containing glyconjugates.

FIG. 5C: Specificity of immune response in Balb/C mice immunized with modified chitin-TT vaccine conjugate.

Bar graph showing reactivity of vaccine sera toward chitin/chitosan polysaccharides. The graph shows that antibodies reactive toward modified chitin can be depleted by adsorption on particulate chitin or chitosan. In addition, soluble extracts from chitin or chitosan inhibit binding of vaccine sera to modified chitin-HSA.

FIG. 5D: Specificity of immune response in Balb/C mice immunized with modified chitin-TT vaccine conjugate.

Bar graph showing reactivity of vaccine sera toward chitin/chitosan polysaccharides. The graph shows that binding of an irrelevant antibody (anti-HA) to its epitope is unaffected by the same treatments.

FIG. 6A: Binding of modified chitin-TT conjugate vaccine induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans fungi.

Bar graph showing that serum antibodies from mock (PBS) and modified chitin-TT immunized Balb/C mice bind to whole C. albicans. Reactivity is specifically competed away with modified chitin fragments.

FIG. 6B: Binding of modified chitin-TT conjugate vaccine induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans fungi.

Bar graph showing that antigen affinity purified chitin reactive antibodies bind to whole C. albicans.

FIG. 7A: Morphology of Candida albicans yeast cells grown under various conditions Yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 7B: Morphology of Candida albicans yeast cells grown under various conditions Intermediate filaments cells grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 150 min.

FIG. 7C: Morphology of Candida albicans yeast cells grown under various conditions Filaments grown into mycelia at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 300 min.

FIG. 8A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Assay control (gating strategy) for antibody binding to yeast cells.

FIG. 8B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Assay controls (unstained control) for antibody binding to yeast cells.

FIG. 8C: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Positive assay control (rabbit polyclonal antibody to candida) for antibody binding to yeast cells (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 8D: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Postivie assay control (rabbit polyclonal antibody to candida) for antibody binding to yeast cells (1:100 dilution).

FIG. 8E: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Positive assays control (rabbit polyclonal antibody to candida) for antibody binding to yeast cells 1:200 dilution.

FIG. 9A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Tetanus toxoid antibody controls binding to yeast cells.

FIG. 9B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Tetanus toxoid antibody controls binding to yeast cells.

FIG. 10A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 10B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 10C: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 10D: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 10E: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 10F: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n.

FIG. 11A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 11B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 11C: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 150 min (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 11D: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 150 min (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 11E: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 300 min (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 11F: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Laminarin antibody binding to yeast cells grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 300 min (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 12A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 30C in YPD mediumo/n (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 12B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 30C in YPD medium o/n (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 12C: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 150 min (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 12D: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 150 min (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 12E: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 300 min (1:10 dilution).

FIG. 12F: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Candida albicans by flow cytometry.

Modified chitin antibody binding to yeast cells (mycelia) when grown at 37C in YPD medium and serum for 300 min (1:50 dilution).

FIG. 13A: Modified chitin-TT vaccine mediated protection from a lethal challenge of C. albicans

Mice (Balb/C) were immunized with a modified chitin-TT vaccine and subsequently challenged with a lethal dose of live C. albicans. Survival was monitored for 36 days after fungal challenge.

FIG. 13B: Modified chitin-TT vaccine mediated protection from a lethal challenge of C. albicans

Mice (CD1) were immunized with a modified chitin-TT and laminarin-TT conjugate vaccines and subsequently challenged with a lethal dose of live C. albicans. Survival was monitored for 28 days after fungal challenge.

FIG. 14A: Immunoreactivity by ELISA of normal human sera with chitin; modified chitin and laminarin Reactivity of normal human sera (IgG gamma) on a modified chitin-HSA coated plate.

All sera react significantly with modified chitin suggesting the presence of naturally acquired chitin-specific antibodies in human through either exposure to fungi or other chitin containing foreign antigens.

FIG. 14B: Immunoreactivity by ELISA of normal human sera (NHS) with chitin; modified chitin and laminarin

Antibody specificity of binding of a high-titer NHS to modified chitin-HSA coated plate by competitive inhibition with various inhibitors. NHS specificity towards modified chitin is the highest, followed by the small chitin oligosaccharide inhibitors (DP5 and DP3).

FIG. 14C: Immunoreactivity by ELISA of normal human sera with chitin; modified chitin and laminarin

Antibody specificity of binding of a high-titer NHS to Chitohexaose-HSA coated plate by competitive inhibition with chitin oligosaccharides of increasing DP. There is an increase inhibition with increasing size of the chitin oligosaccharides from DP2 to DP6, suggesting that these human antibodies recognize a conformational epitope of chitin with a minimum size of an hexasaccharide.

FIG. 14D: Immunoreactivity by ELISA of normal human sera with chitin; modified chitin and laminarin

Reactivity of normal human sera (IgG gamma) on a laminarin-HSA coated plate. NHS recognize laminarin (beta glucan) antigen although not to the same degree as modified chitin.

FIG. 15A: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panel shows GCMP-TT Negative Control

FIG. 15B: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panels shows Laminarin-TT

FIG. 15C: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panel shows Positive Control: Mouse monoclonal antibody to Cryptococcus.

FIG. 15D: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panel shows mChitin-25%-TT.

FIG. 15E: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panel shows mChitin-75%-TT.

FIG. 15F: Binding of modified chitin and laminarin vaccine-induced antibodies to whole Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) by flow cytometry. Assays control for antibody binding to yeast cells. This panel shows mChitin-85%-TT.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention provide s compound comprising one or more polysaccharide moieties each independently represented by the formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]_(n)-2,5-anhydromannose, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to 500, and R is H or an acyl group. In more specific embodiments of this invention, n is a positive integer from 3 to 100, or from 6 to 50. In an embodiment the acyl group R is an acetyl. In another embodiment at least 30% of the acyl groups in the compound are acetyl.

The technical field is prevention, treatment, and detection of fungal infections. Specifically, vaccines or immunotherapeutics that target carbohydrate components of the fungal cell wall can provide treatment for disseminated or locally invasive fungal infections. The disease indications are numerous, including, but not limited to those caused by human pathogenic forms of Candida, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus species. Additionally, the ability to generate an antibody response to the conserved carbohydrate components of these pathogenic fungi could lead to the development of diagnostic reagents for detection of these fungal agents in patient biological samples (e.g. plasma, serum, or other bodily fluids, as well as tissue sections, etc.). Finally, since Th2 type inflammatory responses to chitin have been implicated in allergic asthma and other allergic conditions (2), a chitin based vaccine that results in a shift toward a Th1 type immune response may ameliorate the symptoms of allergen induced inflammation.

Another fundamental cell wall carbohydrate of interest is the surface α-1,3-glucan. Successful infection by fungal pathogens depends on subversion of host immune mechanisms that detect conserved cell wall components such as beta-glucans. A less common polysaccharide, α-(1,3)-glucan, is a cell wall constituent of most fungal respiratory pathogens and has been correlated with pathogenicity or linked directly to virulence. However, the precise mechanism by which α-(1,3)-glucan promotes fungal virulence is unknown. α-(1,3)-glucan is present in the outermost layer of the Histoplasma capsulatum yeast cell wall and contributes to pathogenesis by concealing immunostimulatory beta-glucans from detection by host phagocytic cells. Production of proinflammatory TNFalpha by phagocytes was suppressed either by the presence of the α-(1,3)-glucan layer on yeast cells or by RNA interference based depletion of the host beta-glucan receptor dectin-1. Rappleye et al. have functionally defined key molecular components influencing the initial host-pathogen interaction in histoplasmosis and have revealed an important mechanism by which H. capsulatum thwarts the host immune system. Furthermore, they propose that the degree of this evasion contributes to the difference in pathogenic potential between dimorphic fungal pathogens and opportunistic fungi (25). Another study suggested the relevance of cell wall α-1,3-glucan for fungal infection. Because many fungal species could potentially utilize the same or similar stealth infection strategies, targeting the fungal α-1,3-glucan, for example, by conferring α-1,3-glucanase activity to crop plants or applying an inhibitor of the fungal α-1,3-glucan synthase might provide a versatile strategy for the prevention of a wide variety of fungal diseases in important crops. Although the detailed mechanism is still remains to be solved, the fact is that the removal of the surface α-1,3-glucan rapidly activates the defenses responses of the host plant against the fungal pathogens prior to the fungal invasion, resulting in the inhibition of pathogen infection (26). Yeast cell walls are critical for maintaining cell integrity, particularly in the face of challenges such as growth in mammalian hosts. The pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans additionally anchors its polysaccharide capsule to the cell surface via α(1-3) glucan in the wall. Cryptococcal cells disrupted in their alpha glucan synthase gene were sensitive to stresses, including temperature, and showed difficulty dividing. These cells lacked surface capsule, although they continued to shed capsule material into the environment. Electron microscopy showed that the alpha glucan that is usually localized to the outer portion of the cell wall was absent, the outer region of the wall was highly disorganized, and the inner region was hypertrophic. Analysis of cell wall composition demonstrated complete loss of alpha glucan accompanied by a compensatory increase in chitin/chitosan and a redistribution of beta glucan between cell wall fractions. The mutants were unable to grow in a mouse model of infection, but caused death in nematodes. These studies integrate morphological and biochemical investigations of the role of alpha glucan in the cryptococcal cell wall (27).

Thus a vaccine comprising chitin/chitosan and one or more glucan antigens, for example glucan antigens containing homopolymers of α-1,3 linkagers, β-1,3 linkages or both, will target highly conserved fungal cell wall epitopes and provide a pan-fungal vaccine.

This invention provides anti-fungal conjugate vaccines that target conserved carbohydrate cell wall components that are common structural elements across multiple phyla of pathogenic fungi. The composition of these vaccines can include one or more epitopes consisting of oligosaccharides or polysaccharides derived from chitin, alone or in combination with β-mannan or glucan epitopes. The carbohydrate components may be conjugated to an appropriate immunogenic protein carrier, such as tetanus toxoid, diptheria toxoid, or specific protein virulence factors present on the fungal cell surface. In an embodiment of this invention the carrier protein is covalently linked directly to the one or more polysaccharide moieties at the anhydromannose group of each of the polysaccharide moieties. In an embodiment, the carrier protein is covalently linked to the one or more polysaccharide moieties via one or more immunogenic scaffold moieties. Any conventional scaffold moiety can be used, examples of which include a polysaccharide, a peptidoglycan, a polypeptide, and a polyglycerol. The scaffold can be linear or dendrimeric. Envisioned multicomponent vaccines can include, but are not limited to, a simple mixture of chitin, β-mannan and/or glucan epitopes (linear α-1,3- and/or β-1,3-glucans) or derivatives conjugated individually to a carrier protein or immunogenic scaffold of choice.

In one embodiment, the β-mannan can be a β-1,2-mannose tetrasaccharide. In the simplest embodiment of a β-1,2 mannose tetrasaccharide/scaffold complex, the oligosaccharides can be reacted with a modified chitin polysaccharide, to produce a multivalent molecule. The β-1,2 mannose tetrasaccharide can be chemically synthesized (23). The condensation of the oligosaccharide can be accomplished by any of numerous methods available in the art for reaction between the reducing end of the oligosaccharide with the free amino groups of the modified chitin or via a spacer arm equipped with a squarate group (23). In addition, the invention envisions a further step of conjugating the scaffolded oligosaccharide/polysaccharide to a suitable carrier protein. This conjugation may be achieved by a number of means available to a practitioner skilled in the art. For example, the scaffold complex can be conjugated directly by reductive amination, or indirectly by employing a suitable cross-linker containing a spacer length suitable to relieve steric hindrance between the carbohydrate construct and the carrier protein. In yet another embodiment of the invention, a dendrimeric polysaccharide scaffold can be prepared by first reacting the scaffold component with a multifunctional cross-linking reagent, such as Tris-succinimidyl-aminotriacetate (TSAT). This reaction would yield a multivalent array of available scaffolds, in a dendrimer like pattern, for subsequent condensation of the β-1,2 mannose oligosaccharides component.

Alternatively, the different carbohydrate components can be chemically cross linked, either directly or indirectly. For example, the carbohydrates can be joined by linking them together on a common scaffold matrix, such as a dendrimeric substrate, or by co-conjugation to a protein carrier. Yet another embodiment is to directly scaffold the components together by creating chemical cross links between the carbohydrate components and subsequently conjugating the scaffolded polysaccharide matrix to an immunogenic protein or peptide carrier. These chemical cross links can be achieved by any number of means available to a practioner skilled in the art, including, but not limited to reductive amination or the use of heterobifunctional or homobifunctional chemical cross linking reagents.

This invention provide a composition comprising the compound as described above, wherein for at least 80% of molecules of the compound in the composition n has a value from 6 to 50. In an alternative embodiment, this invention provides a composition comprising molecules of the compound as described above, wherein the mean value of n is from 10 to 50.

Methods to produce chitin or chitosan derived fragments for use in an anti-fungal vaccine were tested. Numerous strategies were tested, under various conditions, based in part on methods available in the literature (15-18). Approaches included methods to directly obtain chitin oligosaccharides, such as partial acid hydrolysis of chitin. Variables tested included time, temperature, and scale of reaction. In all tested methods, solubility was a major problem and yield of oligosaccharides of the desired size was in the disappointing range of 1% or less, consistent with published yields, but undesirable for efficient production of a vaccine antigen. Also tested were various conditions, based on published methods, to achieve limited nitrous deamination of chitosan oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, which deaminates free amino groups with concomitant glycosidic bond cleavage (polymer fragmentation) at the deaminated residue. The variables tested for nitrous deamination included varying the mole fraction of nitrous acid and starting with chitosan of varying size and degree of acetylation. In all of these cases, the nitrous acid treatment solubilized the chitosan suspensions, but the reaction was difficult to control and once again, the yield of oligosaccharides of the desired size was low. Finally, in an attempt to produce a partially de-N-acetylated chitin as the starting material for the nitrous deamination reaction, chitin was treated with NaOH to effect a limited de-N-acetylation prior to nitrous deamination. This treatment only produced chitin oligosaccharides of very low molecular weight.

Failing to obtain chitin derived fragments of the desired size in acceptable yield with the existing methods according to the art, another strategy for obtaining the desired product was devised, which was to partially re-N-acylate (e.g., re-N-acetylate) chitosan in order to produce a chitin/chitosan mixed polymer with a limited number of glucosamine residues containing free amino groups. Because the subsequent nitrous deamination reaction only occurs at glucosamine residues containing free amino groups, the N-acyl glucosamine (e.g., N-acetyl glucosamine) residues would be resistant to cleavage. Since the acylation (e.g., acetylation) reaction is not catalytic in nature, whether the reaction could be controlled by adjusting the mole fraction of acetylating reagent present in the reaction was tested. By adjusting the quantity of acylating (e.g., acetylating) reagent, it was found that one could directly control the size of the chitin derived fragments in the subsequent nitrous deamination reaction. Furthermore, the two reactions leading from chitosan to modified chitin fragments could be performed as a one pot reaction, consisting of a solid phase acylation (e.g., acetylation) reaction, followed by acidification and nitrous deamination to yield modified chitin fragments. Any convention acylating agent can be used, for example acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride, both of which are acetylating agents, or N-propionic anhydride or propionic chloride, which are propionylating agents.

A major impediment to employing chitin in a vaccine formulation is its highly insoluble nature. Methods available in the art for degrading chitin into soluble fragments are not stoichiometrically controlled and it is thus difficult to modulate the degree of depolymerization. The aim was to efficiently produce chitin derived fragments of sufficient size to induce vaccine responses against native chitin polymers in the fungal cell wall, while also meeting the potentially competing criteria that the fragments be soluble or sufficiently uniform that they are suitable for formulation as an injectable vaccine. The non-limiting examples below demonstrate how success was achieved in meeting these criteria in a one pot reaction. By employing a first step of partial re-N-acetylation of chitosan in a stoichiometrically limited reaction, it was possible to subsequently fragment the modified polymer by nitrous deamination, in a controlled fashion (Example 1 and FIG. 1).

This invention provides a method of immunizing a mammalian subject against a fungal infection, comprising administering to the subject an immunogenic amount of a compound or composition as described above. The subject can be a human or non-human animal.

In order to improve the immunogenicity of the carbohydrate antigen and to promote a T-cell dependent memory response, the modified chitin fragment was conjugated to tetanus toxoid. Tetanus toxoid is a non-limiting example of an immunogenic protein that contains multiple T-helper epitopes which make it suitable for use as a protein carrier for carbohydrate conjugate vaccines. Example 2 and FIG. 2 demonstrate a non-limiting example of a method for conjugation of the aldehyde containing chitin fragments to tetanus toxoid via reductive amination. Example 3 and FIG. 3 provide a typical example of an immunization strategy to induce vaccine responses in test animals.

Evaluation of antibody responses in Balb/C mice immunized with the modified chitin vaccine, as outlined here, demonstrates that the vaccine produces robust and specific immune responses toward both the immunizing antigen (Example 4 and FIG. 4) and toward whole C. albicans fungi (Example 6 and FIGS. 6A and 6B). The mock (PBS) immunized animals exhibit a basal level of binding to whole C. albicans (Example 6A and FIG. 6A), consistent with prior fungal exposure. Immunization with the modified chitin vaccine markedly elevated the titer of serum antibodies that recognize C. albicans, indicating an enhancement of the adaptive response to the fungus. Binding of C. albicans was substantially inhibited with modified chitin fragments, demonstrating that a significant portion of the serum antibodies recognize chitin and, importantly, that the antibodies recognize chitin in the native fungus. Antigen inhibition experiments verified the specificity of the vaccine response toward the immunizing antigen (Example and FIG. 5A). Furthermore, the induced antibodies showed no detectable cross reactivity with multiple GlcNAc containing glycoconjugates that are present in mammals (Example 5B and FIG. 5B). These negative specificity controls included O-linked GlcNAc-Serine, a major intracellular glycan; ovalbumin and fetuin, which both contain many different N- and O-linked carbohydrate antigens; hyaluronic acid (HA), which is a major component of the extracellular matrix; and crude serum, which contains a multitude of glycoproteins. When the vaccine sera was preadsorbed on a suspension of chitin or chitosan particles, or incubated with soluble chitin/chitosan, binding to the modified chitin antigen was dramatically inhibited (Example 5C and FIGS. 5C and 5D), further demonstrating the specificity of the vaccine response. Antigen affinity purification of the vaccine induced serum antibodies show that the chitin specific fraction is capable of binding whole C. albicans. These data provide a concrete example of a vaccine directed toward a conserved and essential component of the fungal cell wall, namely chitin, which is present in all known pathogenic fungi.

Analysis of the binding of modified chitin vaccine induced antibodies to C. albicans yeast cells by flow cytometry indicate that the modified Chitin antibodies stained positively candida cells with about 25% of live population binding at 1:10 dilution (Example 6C and FIGS. 10B, 10D and 10F) further supporting the binding data detailed in Example 6. High titer laminarin (β-glucan) antibodies generated with a laminarin-TT conjugate also stained positively C. albicans (FIGS. 10A, 10C and 10E). These data suggest that both carbohydrates are exposed at the surface of the fungus. The binding of modified chitin antibodies as well as beta-glucan antibodies at various stages of candida growth in culture was also examined by flow cytometry. Yeast cells (following overnight incubation at 300C), and mycelial (filament) forms (following incubation at 370C for 150 minutes and 300 minutes respectively, were obtained by culture in YPD medium containing serum (FIGS. 7A-C).

The flow cytometry staining results indicate that the binding of the vaccine-induced laminarin antibodies to candida cells is highest on yeast cells and decreases as the cells differentiate to the more virulent filament forms of the fungus (FIGS. 11A through 11F) whereas the binding of modified chitin induced antibodies are not affected by the differentiation stages of the fungus indicating their consistent antigenic expression throughout the invasive process (FIGS. 12A through 12F). These results are important for the development of an effective pan-fungal vaccine formulation in that it stresses the need to incorporate more than one cell wall carbohydrate component in the vaccine formulation for an optimum efficacy throughout the fungal invasive process.

Analysis of the binding of modified chitin vaccine induced antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans type A (H99) yeast cells by flow cytometry indicate that the modified Chitin antibodies stained positively cryptococcal cells with about 31%, 47% and 60% of live population binding at 1:10 dilution with the 25%, 75% and 85% modified chitin-TT conjugate antibodies respectively (Example 6 and FIGS. 15D, 15E and 15) further supporting the binding data detailed in Example 6. High titer laminarin (β-glucan) antibodies generated with a laminarin-TT conjugate also stained positively Cryptococcus neoformans (FIGS. 15A, 15B and 15C). As for Candida albicans these data suggest that both carbohydrates are exposed at the surface of the cryptococcal fungus.

In a preliminary example of protection against a lethal challenge with a pathogenic fungus, Balb/C and CD1 mice that received a single cell wall component vaccine comprising a modified chitin-tetanus toxoid conjugate, showed partial protection against a 100% lethal dose of live C. albicans (Example 7 and FIGS. 13A and 13B). In a repeat lethal challenge experiment, the same modified chitin-tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine displayed similar partial protection against live C. albicans, albeit greater protection than the a laminarin (β-glucan)-tetanus toxoid conjugate or an chitohexaose-tetanus toxoid conjugate (FIG. 13B). These results will be extended and further embodiments of the invention, such as vaccines comprising multiple cell wall components (Example 9 and FIGS. 8A through 12F) will be examined for efficacy in similar in vivo lethal challenge models employing, for example, C. albicans, A. fumigatus, and C. neoformans.

Analysis of normal human sera (NHS) for the presence of chitin, modified chitin and laminarin antibodies outlined here demonstrate that these antibodies are naturally acquired and exist in healthy individuals (FIGS. 14A through 14D). Chitin antibodies seem to be present at significant levels (FIG. 14A) and these levels are significantly higher than those against β-glucan (FIG. 14D), It is interesting to note that chitin antibodies are directed towards a conformational epitope made up of at least a saccharide of DP6 (FIG. 14C). These results are important for the design of a chitin-based vaccine because they suggest that an optimum conjugate vaccine should contain chitin fragments of a least 6 GlcNAc residues.

The vaccine produced as outlined in the preceding specification can be formulated in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as phosphate buffered saline, normal saline or other appropriate carrier. Additionally, the vaccine can optimally include one or more adjuvants to augment the immunogenecity and/or efficacy. Adjuvants can be added directly to the vaccine compositions or can be administered separately, either concurrently with or shortly after, administration of the vaccine. Without limitation, suitable adjuvants include a variety of adjuvants known in the art, either alone or in combination. Non-limiting examples are an aluminum salt such as aluminum hydroxide gel or aluminum phosphate or alum, but can also be a salt of calcium, magnesium, iron or zinc, or may be an insoluble suspension of acylated tyrosine, or acylated sugars, cationically or anionically derivatized saccharides, or polyphosphazenes. Adjuvants can also be selected, for example, from a variety of oil in water emulsions, Toll like receptors agonists, (ex Toll like receptor 2 agonist, Toll like receptor 3 agonist, Toll like receptor 4 agonist, Toll like receptor 7 agonist, Toll like receptor 8 agonist and Toll like receptor 9 agonist), saponins or combinations thereof.

A vaccine composition yielding a productive antibody response may be used in multiple ways. For example, the vaccine may be used for direct immunization of patients at risk for fungal infection. Alternatively, the compounds and compositions of the present invention may be used to isolate or generate antibodies to the compounds of the invention. Isolated antibodies might be prepared, either polyclonal or monoclonal in nature, using known methods available in the art. For example, the compounds of the invention may be used to screen human antibody phage display libraries, by methods well known to practitioners skilled in the art. As another example, the compositions described herein may be used to elicit an antibody response in an appropriate host and the resulting antibodies may be immortalized by hybridoma technology, using known methods well established in the art. In yet another non-limiting example, using methods known in the art, the compounds described herein may be used to directly produce human antibodies using human B-cell hybridoma technology. Any antibodies thus produced may be used to confer passive protection, either for prophylactic or therapeutic use. Non-limiting examples for uses of these isolated antibodies might include direct protection against fungal disease via immunotherapy, combination therapy with existing anti-fungal agents, or immunoconjugate preparation, e.g. direct conjugation to anti-fungal agents. Furthermore, these antibodies can be used to develop a diagnostic platform for detection of fungal infection in patient samples.

In view of the described achievement in producing a vaccine antigen that elicits specific responses to fungal cell wall components, any of the foregoing antibody based strategies could be extended to antibody fragments or engineered antibody derivatives, which can include one or more complementarity determining regions (CDRs) of antibodies, or one or more antigen-binding fragments of an antibody. The terms “antibody” and “antibodies” include, but are not limited to, monoclonal antibodies, multispecific antibodies, human antibodies, humanized antibodies, camelised antibodies, chimeric antibodies, single-chain Fvs (scFv), single chain antibodies, single domain antibodies, Fab fragments, F(ab′) fragments, etc., and epitope-binding fragments of any of the above.

A portion of the chitin present in the fungal cell wall is modified by chitin deacetylases to produce chitosan and there is evidence that a mixture of chitin/chitosan polymers may be necessary for proper cell wall integrity and function (19, 20). NMR data on the modified chitin fragments shows some residual free amino groups, raising the possibility that the vaccine can target both pure chitin as well as chitosan containing regions in the chitinous cell wall.

In addition to chitin, β-mannan and β-glucan polymers comprise the fundamental carbohydrate constituents of the fungal cell wall. Vaccine induced antibodies that target specific β-mannan or β-glucan carbohydrates have been shown to confer protection against fungal disease, displaying both vaccine based efficacy and passive protection (9-11). To date, chitin has not been examined as an anti-fungal vaccine target. In vivo, these three carbohydrate components are covalently cross linked to form the cell wall lattice (21, 22). Vaccine formulations consisting of modified chitin alone, or a combination of two or more of the conserved carbohydrate epitopes of the fungal cell wall, are contemplated to produce a broadly protective vaccine response. Such a combination vaccine could be designed either as a co-administered mixture or as a cross linked scaffold that more closely mimics the surface topography of the fungal cell wall. It is anticipated that these vaccines will be highly effective at inducing a pan fungal immune response.

The invention will be better understood by reference to the following examples, which illustrate but do not limit the invention described herein.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Partial Re-N-Acetylation/Deamination of Chitosan to Yield Modified Chitin Fragments

-   -   3 g of chitosan (16.8 mmol of GlcNH₂, Sigma cat. #419419) was         suspended in 150 mL of H₂O in a 250 mL round bottomed flask and         placed on a stir plate.     -   Acetic anhydride, 795 μL, 0.5 equivalents, relative to the         number of amino groups, was added to 15 mL of EtOH.     -   The acetic anhydride solution was added to the stirring chitosan         suspension, dropwise over 30 minutes, via an addition funnel.         The reaction became very viscous, but it was still possible to         stir the reaction mixture.     -   The reaction was allowed to proceed for another 30 minutes at         room temperature.     -   18 mL of glacial acetic acid was added to the reaction mixture,         giving a pH of ˜3.     -   6 mL of a freshly prepared 5% aqueous solution of NaNO₂ was         added to the reaction and the mixture was stirred for 1 hour at         room temperature. The reaction liberated a substantial amount of         gas and became much less viscous during the course of the         reaction.     -   The reaction mixture was neutralized with 16.5 mL of 10 N NaOH.     -   The sample was dialyzed overnight, against 4 L of 1 M NaCl, in a         dialysis membrane with a 7,000 molecular weight cut off. The         sample was further dialyzed against 4 changes of 4 L of water at         room temperature.     -   The reaction mixture was centrifuged for 15 minutes at 4,000 RPM         to remove the insoluble material, then filtered through 0.45 um         syringe filters.     -   Samples were removed for HPLC and NMR analysis.

Example 2: Preparation of Modified Chitin-Tetanus Toxoid Vaccine Conjugate by Reductive Amination

-   -   5 mg of tetanus toxoid (TT, 3.3 mL from 3 mg/mL solution in         saline; Sreum Staten Institute) was added to 50 mg of modified         chitin fragment.     -   The Schiff Base reaction was allowed to proceed for 6 hours at         room temperature.     -   Repurified sodium cyanoborohydride, 10 mg, was added in a volume         of 10 μL H₂O to the reaction mixture. The reaction was left to         proceed at room temperature and monitored after one and three         days by SDS-PAGE.     -   Following the reaction, the chitin-TT mixture was diluted to ˜2         mL with PBS and dialyzed against 4 L of PBS. The dialyzed sample         was filtered through a 0.45 μm syringe filter. The final         dialysate was quantitated by BCA assay and analyzed by SDS-PAGE         and HPLC.

Example 3: Immunization of Balb/C Mice with Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine Conjugate

40 female Balb/C mice were received and housed under standard day/night cycles with food and water, ad libitum. The animals were allowed to acclimate to the facility for a minimum of one week, then randomly divided into four groups and immunized as follows:

-   1. An emulsion of PBS in Freund's Complete Adjuvant (200 μL) was     delivered by intraperitoneal injection into 10 mice on day 0. On     days 28 and 38, animals received injections of PBS in Freund's     Incomplete Adjuvant, delivered in the same manner. -   2. Modified Chitin-TT conjugate (25 μg of antigen) was injected into     10 mice as an emulsion in Freund's Complete Adjuvant (200 μL), by     intraperitoneal injection on Day 0. On days 28 and 38, animals     received booster injections of Chitin-TT (25 μg) in Freund's     Incomplete Adjuvant, delivered in the same manner as the primary     immunization. -   3. Animals were injected with Modified Chitin-TT (50 μg), as per the     protocol for Group 2. -   4. Animals were injected with Modified Chitin-TT (100 μg), as per     Groups 2 & 3.     -   Mice were bled and serum was prepared on Days −4, 38 and 50 in         order to evaluate chitin specific antibody responses.

Animals were bled and serum was prepared 4 days prior to the initial injection (Study Day −4), in order to determine antibody titers in pre-immune serum. Mice were immunized on Study Day 0 according to the experimental groups outlined above. The LMW Chitin-TT antigen was suspended in PBS at concentrations of 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/mL, mixed with Freund's Complete adjuvant at a 1:1 ratio, and vortexed for 20 minutes to create an emulsion. 200 μL of emulsion containing PBS/Freund's control or the test antigens (final conc. 0.125, 0.25 or 0.5 mg/mL for a total of 25, 50, or 100 μg protein conjugate, respectively) was administered by intraperitoneal injection, as indicated above, to each mouse on Day 0. For the subsequent boosts on Day 28 and Day 38, antigen was prepared similarly in Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant and administered in the same manner. Immunized animals were bled and serum was prepared on Day 38 and Day 50 in order to evaluate antibody responses.

Example 4: Assay for Antibody Response of Balb/C Mice Immunized with Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine Conjugate

-   -   2 μg/mL solutions of two different Modified Chitin human serum         albumin (HSA) conjugates were prepared in PBS.     -   100 μL of each solution was coated into half the wells of a         96-well assay plate (1/2 plate for each antigen) and incubated         overnight at room temperature.     -   The wells were washed 3× with PBST, then blocked for 1 hour with         1% BSA in PBS.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST.     -   Modified Chitin Vaccine mouse sera were pooled and diluted 1:20         in PBS.     -   Treatment groups were as follows:     -   1. PBS/Freund's     -   2. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 25 μg/mouse     -   3. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 50 μg/mouse     -   4. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 100 μg/mouse     -   200 μL of a ten fold dilution of each pooled serum sample was         plated into the first column of wells of the Chitin-HSA coated         microplate.     -   A two fold dilution series was made for a total of 12 different         serum concentrations, ranging from 1:200 to 1:409,600.     -   The samples were incubated for 2 hours at room temperature.     -   The plate was washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The absorbance was read on a microplate reader at 450 nm.

Example 5: Assay for Specificity of the Antibody Response of Balb/C Mice Immunized with Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine Conjugate A. Antigen Inhibition

-   -   2 μg/mL solutions of modified chitin HSA conjugates (lots #2 and         #3) were prepared in PBS.     -   100 μL of each solution was coated into half the wells of a         96-well assay plate and incubated overnight at room temperature.     -   The wells were washed 3× with PBST and blocked 1 hour with 1%         BSA in PBS.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST and stored dry at 4° C. until         use.     -   2 mg/mL solutions of GlcNAc, HA and modified Chitin fragments         were prepared in PBS and 200 μL of each solution was transferred         to a set of titer tubes.     -   A two fold dilution series in PBS was made for a total of 11         different concentrations of each inhibitor, ranging from 2 mg/mL         to 1.95 μg/mL, as well as an uninhibited control (final         inhibitor concentrations of 1 mg/mL to 976 ng/mL).     -   Pooled sample from the Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's treatment         group (100 μg/mouse, Day 50 bleed) was diluted to 20:000 fold in         1% BSA/PBST.     -   100 μL of diluted serum sample was transferred into each of the         titer tubes (final 40:000 dilution) and incubated with the         inhibitors for 30 minutes at room temperature.     -   100 μL of each serum sample/inhibitor was transferred into the         Modified Chitin-HSA coated microplate and incubated for 2 hours         at room temperature.     -   The plate was washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl and the absorbance         was read on a microplate reader at 450 nm.

B. Antibody Reactivity Specificity Controls

-   -   2 μg/mL solutions of the test compounds (serine-O-GlcNAc,         ovalbumin, fetuin, hyaluronic acid (HA), fetal bovine serum)         were prepared in PBS, with the exception of FBS, which was         prepared as a 10% solution (v:v) in PBS.     -   100 μL of each solution was coated into the wells of a 96-well         assay plate. The test antigens were incubated in the plate         overnight at 4° C.     -   The wells were washed 3× with PBS and blocked for 1 hour with 1%         BSA/PBS.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST and stored dry at 4° C. until         use.     -   Modified Chitin Vaccine mouse sera were pooled by treatment         group and diluted 1:20 in PBS Treatment groups were as follows:         -   1. PBS/Freund's         -   2. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 25 μg/mouse         -   3. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 50 μg/mouse         -   4. Modified Chitin-TT/Freund's; 100 μg/mouse     -   The pooled serum samples were further diluted to a final of         1:20,000 fold in 1% BSA/PBST.     -   100 μL of diluted serum sample from each group was transferred         in triplicate to the wells of the assay plate and incubated for         1 hour at room temperature.     -   The plate was washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The absorbance was read on a plate reader at 450 nm.     -   Note that the ELISA response for all of the replicates for Group         4 were out of the linear range. These samples were arbitrarily         assigned a value of 3.0, which is near the detection limit of         the plate reader. These values probably represent an         underestimate.

C. Chitin/Chitosan Absorption and Inhibition

-   -   2 μg/mL solutions of the test compounds (modified chitin-HSA or         LMW HA-HSA) were prepared in PBS.     -   100 μL of each solution was coated into the wells of a 96-well         assay plate and incubated overnight at 4° C.     -   The wells were washed 3× with PBST and blocked for 1 hour with         1% BSA in PBS.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST.     -   In the meantime, pooled Modified Chitin Vaccine mouse sera was         diluted to a final concentration of 1:5000 in 1% BSA/PBS.     -   HA MAb #2 was diluted to 1:2000 in 1% BSA/PBS.     -   5 mL of diluted serum sample or HA MAb was incubated overnight         on a rotator at 4° C. with 100 mg of either chitin or chitosan         (both made as insoluble suspensions).     -   A fraction of diluted chitin vaccine #1 serum or HA MAb was set         aside at 4° C. to serve as positive controls and to mix with         chitin/chitosan extracts for inhibition experiment.     -   In parallel, chitin and chitosan was incubated with 5 mL of 1%         BSA/PBS in the same manner, in order to extract soluble         chitin/chitosan for inhibition testing.     -   Samples were centrifuged 5 minutes at 4500 to pellet out         insoluble chitin and chitosan.     -   The supernatant fractions were removed to fresh tubes and         diluted 4 fold (final 1:20,000 for Modified Chitin Vaccine and         1:8,000 for HA MAb) in 1% BSA/PBS.     -   Untreated Modified Chitin vaccine serum sample and untreated HA         MAb were likewise diluted to equivalent final concentrations in         1% BSA/PBS (100 μL Ab or serum+300 μL BSA/PBS)     -   For inhibition testing, untreated serum or Ab solutions were         diluted 4 fold with either chitin or chitosan extract to         equivalent final concentrations (final 1:20,000 for Modified         Chitin Vaccine and 1:8,000 for HA MAb). The solutions were         pre-incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature prior to         addition to the ELISA plate.     -   100 μL of each sample was added, in triplicate, to ELISA strips         coated with either modified Modified Chitin-HSA or LMW HA-HSA,         as appropriate.     -   The samples were incubated in the strips for one hour at room         temperature.     -   The strips were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP, diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The HA ELISA samples developed color very rapidly, so the         reaction was stopped within ˜1 minute. Likewise, the positive         control in the Modified Chitin Vaccine samples developed         rapidly, so the reaction was terminated after 2 minutes.     -   The absorbance was read on a microplate reader at 450 nm.

Example 6: Assays for Immunoreactivity of Serum Antibodies from Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine Immunized Balb/C Mice Toward C. albicans Whole Cells

A. Binding of Whole Serum to C. albicans Cells

-   -   A single colony of C. albicans was picked from a Saboraud         Dextrose Agar plate and used to inoculate 2 mL of YPD growth         medium. The culture was grown overnight at 30° C., with shaking         at 250 RPM.     -   100 μL of a 5×10⁶ cells/mL suspension was added into each well         of an amine surface modified Strip Well microplate. The cells         were allowed to settle for one hour at room temperature.     -   100 μL of a 2% solution of glutaraldehyde in PBS was added to         each well.     -   The cells were allowed to cross link overnight at room         temperature.     -   The fixative was aspirated away and the wells were washed 3×         with PBST.     -   Wells were blocked for 1 hour at room temp with 1% BSA in PBS.     -   In the meantime, pooled Modified Chitin Vaccine mouse sera were         diluted to a concentration of 1:20,000 in 1% BSA/PBS.     -   100 μL of 2 mg/mL solutions of modified chitin or PBS were         distributed, in triplicate, into titer tubes.     -   For inhibition testing, 100 μL of serum was added to the tubes         containing the inhibitors (final 1:40,000 for Modified Chitin         Vaccine serum samples and 1 mg/mL for inhibitors). The solutions         were pre-incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature prior to         addition to the ELISA plate.     -   100 μL of each sample was added to the C. albicans coated         stripwell plate. The samples were incubated for one hour at room         temperature.     -   The strips were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP, diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate at room temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped after two minutes with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The absorbance was read on a plate reader at 450 nm.         B. Binding of Affinity Purified Modified Chitin Reactive         Antibodies to C. albicans     -   20 mg of modified chitin and periodate oxidized HA were         dissolved in 2 mL of 20 mM NaPO₄, pH 7.5. Oxidized HA required         overnight at room temperature to dissolve.     -   UltraLink Hydrazide gel (4 mL of slurry, 2 mL of settled resin)         was washed with 5 volumes of 20 mM NaPO₄, pH 7.5.     -   The dissolved saccharides were added to the washed resin and         allowed to react for 24 hours at room temperature.     -   The unbound material was drained away and the resins were washed         with the following:         -   1. 20 column volumes of 20 mM NaPO₄, pH 7.5         -   2. 5 column volumes of 10×PBS.         -   3. 10 column volumes of 1×PBS.     -   Pooled Modified Chitin Vaccine mouse sera (from PBS control         group and 100 μg modified chitin-TT immunized group) were         diluted to an initial concentration of 1:40 in 1% BSA/PBS     -   100 μL (200 μL of slurry) of Modified Chitin and oxidized HA         UltraLink hydrazide gels were washed with 500 μL of PBS in a         micro spin column.     -   200 μL of each serum and the affinity resins were mixed and         incubated for 1 hr at RT.     -   The unbound material was removed by centrifugation for 30         seconds at 8500 RPM.     -   The resins were washed 3× with 500 μL PBST.     -   200 μL of 0.2 M glycine, pH 2.8 was added to each resin and         allowed to interact for ˜3 min.     -   Eluted protein was collected by centrifugation directly into a         tube containing 50 μL of 1 M Tris, pH 8.     -   A single colony of C. albicans was picked from a Sabouraud         Dextrose Agar plate and used to inoculate 2 mL of YPD growth         medium and the culture was grown overnight at 30° C., with         shaking at 250 RPM.     -   100 μL of 1×10⁷ cells/mL suspension was added into each well of         an amine surface modified Strip Well microplate. The cells were         allowed to settle for 2 hours at room temperature.     -   100 μL of a 2% solution of glutaraldehyde in PBS was added to         each well.     -   The cells were allowed to cross link for one hour at room         temperature.     -   The fixative was carefully aspirated away and the wells were         washed 3× with PBST.     -   Wells were blocked for 1 hour at room temp with 1% BSA in PBS.     -   The antigen affinity purified antibodies were diluted 1:1,000         with 1% BSA in PBS.     -   A 2 fold dilution series was prepared in titer tubes.     -   100 μL of the antibody dilutions were added in triplicate to         the C. albicans coated plate.     -   The samples were incubated for 1 hour at room temperature.     -   The plate was washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-mouse IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP, diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The absorbance was read on a plate reader at 450 nm.         C. Binding of Vaccine-Induced Antibodies to Candida albicans by         Flow Cytometry:

Candida cells: Using a sterile loop, C. albicans from frozen stock were streaked on an SDA plate and incubated at 30C. A single colony from the SDA plate was picked using inoculating loop and inoculated into a 250-ml flask containing 50 ml of YPD and incubated at 30C with shaking at 150 rpm for at least 18 h. For experiments where mycelia stage of candida was used, the cells were incubated at 37C for 150 minutes and 300 minutes in YPD containing serum following O/N incubation to induce and favor differentiation into mycelia stage of candida. The O/N culture was transferred into a 50 ml tube and centrifuged at 1000 g for 20 mins and the pellet was washed with 2 ml PBS solution at least 3 times. The pellet was resuspended in 2 ml PBS and the concentration was adjusted to 0.1 OD600 (4×106/ml).

Cryptococcal cells: Fungal growth-streaking from stock overnight was performed using a sterile loop, and streaking the strain Cryptococcus neoformans type A frozen stock to isolation on an SDA plate and incubated at 30° C. A single colony from the SDA plate was picked using inoculating loop and inoculated into a 250-ml flask containing 50 ml of YPD and incubated at 30C with shaking at 150 rpm for at least 18 h. For experiments where mycelia stage of Cryptococcus was used, the cells were incubated at 37C for 150 minutes and 300 minutes in YPD containing serum following O/N incubation to induce and favor differentiation into mycelia stage of candida. The O/N culture was transferred into a 50 ml tube and centrifuged at 1000 g for 20 mins and the pellet was washed with 2 ml PBS solution at least 3 times. The pellet was resuspended in 2 ml PBS and the concentration was adjusted to 1.0 OD600 reading (4×10 7/ml).

Sera and Antibodies: Mice sera from various vaccine groups was diluted in 1:10, 1:50 and 1:100 in PBS and used at 15 ul volume/tube. The control antibodies were diluted as: Mouse mAb to candida, 1:5, 1:10 and 1:20 dilutions; For Rabbit pAb to candida, 1:50, 1:100 and 1:200 dilutions and used at 20 ul volume/tube. FITC-labeled secondary antibodies were diluted 1:25 in PBS and used at 15 ul/tube. Propidium Iodide was used at 1:2 in PBS (5 ul/tube).

Flow Cytometry: About 100 ul of fungal cells were transferred into the tubes and appropriate serum and antibodies were added and incubated on ice for 60 minutes. The cells were then washed 2 times with 1 ml PBS (By spinning at 1000 g for 10 mins at 40C, decanting supernatant) followed by incubation with secondary antibody for 30 mins on ice protected from light.

Diluted propidium iodide (No Wash) was added and the cells incubated for an additional 10 mins on ice followed by 2 PBS washes and finally fixed in 200 ul of 1% paraformaldehyde. The data was then acquired on a FACS Calibur instrument.

Example 7: Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine Confers Protection from a Lethal Challenge of C. albicans Pathogenic Fungus

A. Immunization of Balb/C Mice with Modified Chitin-TT Vaccine, and CD1 Mice with Chitoheaose-TT and Laminarin-TT Conjugates.

-   -   40 female mice were received and housed under standard day/night         cycles with food and water, ad libitum. The animals were allowed         to acclimate to the facility for a minimum of one week, then         randomly divided into two groups and immunized as follows:     -   Initially, BalB/c mice were divided into two groups, n=20         mice/group:         -   1. PBS/Freund's; 200 μL/mouse; intraperitoneal injection         -   2. Mod Chitin-TT/Freund's; 200 μL/mouse; i.p.; 100 μg/mouse     -   For the mock immunized control animals, an emulsion of PBS in         Complete Freund's Adjuvant (200 μL) was delivered by         intraperitoneal injection into 20 mice on day 0. On days 28 and         38, animals received injections of PBS in Incomplete Freund's         Adjuvant, delivered in the same manner as the primary         immunization.     -   For the vaccination group, Modified Chitin-TT conjugate (100 μg         of antigen, as an emulsion in Complete Freund's Adjuvant) was         delivered by intraperitoneal injection into 20 mice (200 μL), on         Day 0. On days 28 and 38, animals received booster injections of         Chitin-TT (50 μg) in Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant, delivered in         the same manner as the primary immunization.     -   Mice were bled and serum was prepared on Days −4, 38, 50, and         62, for evaluation of antibody responses.     -   Same protocol was used to immunize CD1 mice with modified         chitin-TT; laminarin-TT and Chitohexaose-TT conjugates         B. Challenge of Chitin-TT Vaccine Immunized Balb/C and CD1 Mice         with a Lethal Dose of C. albicans

The animals from each of the immunization groups, above, were randomly divided into three groups of ten for each immunization cohort, and inoculated with C. albicans cells, as follows.

Experimental groups: n=10 mice/group, randomly divided into groups

Groups 1 and 2 comprise animals from PBS (mock) immunized animals

-   -   1. Saline; 200 mouse; tail vein injection     -   2. 5×10⁶ C. albicans; 200 μL from 2.5×10⁷ CFU/mL; tail vein         injection Groups 3 and 4 comprise animals from modified chitin         TT immunized animals     -   3. Saline; 200 μL/mouse; tail vein injection     -   4. 5×10⁶ C. albicans; 200 μL from 2.5×10⁷ CFU/mL; tail vein         injection Monitoring mice:     -   1. Mice were checked daily for mortality and signs of distress:         -   Decreased food and water consumption, weight loss,             self-imposed isolation/hiding, rapid breathing,             opened-mouthbreathing, increased/decreased movement,             abnormal posture/positioning, dehydration, twitching,             trembling, and tremors.     -   2. Mice showing signs of distress accompanied by any of the         following were defined as moribund: impaired ambulation (unable         to reach food and water), evidence of muscle atrophy or signs of         emaciation, lethargy (drowsiness, aversion to activity, lack of         physical or mental alertness), prolonged anorexia, difficulty         breathing, and neurological disturbances. Mice were euthanized         when they look moribund and death appeared imminent. The date of         death was recorded as the following day.

Example 8: Detection and Characterization of Chitin and β-Glucan Antibodies in Human Normal Sera

2 μg/mL solutions of different human serum albumin (HSA) conjugates (modified chitin, chitohexaose, and laminarin) were prepared in PBS.

-   -   100 μL of each solution was coated into half the wells of a         96-well assay plate (1/2 plate for each antigen) and incubated         overnight at room temperature.     -   The wells were washed 3× with PBST, then blocked for 1 hour with         1% BSA in PBS.     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST.     -   Normal human sera diluted 1:20 in PBS.     -   200 μL of a ten fold dilution of each pooled serum sample was         plated into the first column of wells of the various HSA         conjugates coated microplate.     -   A two fold dilution series was made for a total of 12 different         serum concentrations, ranging from 1:200 to 1:409,600.     -   The samples were incubated for 2 hours at room temperature.     -   The plate was washed 3× with PBST, then incubated 1 hour at RT         with 100 μL of anti-human IgG (γ-chain specific)-HRP diluted         1:2500 in 1% BSA/PBST     -   Wells were washed 3× with PBST, then incubated with 100 μL of         SureBlue Reserve TMB peroxidase substrate for 5 minutes at room         temperature.     -   The reaction was stopped with 100 μL 1 N HCl.     -   The absorbance was read on a microplate reader at 450 nm.

Example 9: Preparation of a β1,3 Glucan/Chitin Conjugate Tetanus Toxoid Vaccine

Following is an example of one of several envisioned methods to prepare a combination fungal vaccine comprising two or more conserved components of the fungal cell wall. In this example, laminarin (linear, unbranched polymer of β-1,3 glucan) was reduced and oxidized with sodium periodate, subsequently conjugated directly to chitosan via reductive amination, and finally, the cross linked carbohydrates were conjugated to tetanus toxoid.

-   -   Laminarin was reduced with sodium borohydride and subsequently         oxidized with sodium meta periodate by standard methods.     -   100 mg of oxidized laminarin was dissolved in PBS (serveral         minutes at 37° C. to dissolve) and mixed with low molecular         weight chitosan at a 1:5 ratio. The chitosan remained as an         insoluble suspension.     -   The reaction was placed in a 37° C. shaking incubator for 24         hours.     -   20 mg of NaCNBH₃ was added and the reaction was continued         another 24 hours at 37° C.     -   The reaction suspension was transferred to a disposable plastic         column and the insoluble material was washed extensively with         H₂O to remove any residual, unreacted laminarin.     -   The washed, insoluble material was resuspended in 5 mL of 10%         aqueous acetic acid     -   1 mL of freshly prepared aqueous sodium nitrite was added and         the reaction was allowed to proceed for 60 minutes at room         temperature. Most of the insoluble material entered into         solution during the course of the reaction.     -   The reaction mixture was centrifuged 5 minutes at 4500×G to         remove the remaining insoluble material. The soluble fraction         was further processed as described below.     -   The soluble fraction was diluted to 15 mL, in a final         concentration of 1 M NaCl and dialyzed against 4 changes of 4         liters of H₂O. The dialyzed material was lyophilized to give a         fluffy white powder, 90 mg total yield.     -   The polysaccharide conjugate was analyzed by SEC HPLC and the         presence of both chitin and β-glucan in the product was         confirmed by ¹H NMR.     -   10 mg of tetanus toxoid (TT, 3.3 mL from 3 mg/mL solution in         saline) was added to 40 mg of the laminarin-chitin conjugate.     -   A 2 μL aliquot of the sample was added to 98 μL of 1×LDS sample         buffer+5 μL of 1 M DTT for SDS-PAGE analysis.     -   Another 2 μL of sample was added to 98 μL of 1×PBS for HPLC         analysis.     -   The solution was allowed to react for 24 hours at 37° C. in a         shaking incubator (300 RPM).     -   Repurified sodium cyanoborohydride, 40 mg, was added directly to         the reaction. The reactions were left to proceed for 24 hours at         37° C. in a shaking incubator (300 RPM).     -   Following the reaction, the conjugation reaction was         concentrated to ˜2.5 mL in an Amicon ultrafiltration device with         a 10,000 MWCO membrane. The sample was dialyzed against 3         exchanges of 4 L of PBS. The final dialysate was quantitated by         BCA assay and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and SEC HPLC. After the         samples were adjusted to a concentration of 1 mg/mL, they were         sterile filtered through a 0.22 micron filter.

LITERATURE REFERENCES

-   1. De Jonge R, van Esse H P, Kombrink A, Shinya T, Desaki Y, Bours     R, van der Krol S, Shibuya N, Joosten M H, Thomma BP. 2010.     Conserved fungal LysM effector Ecp6 prevents chitin-triggered     immunity in plants. Science 329: 953-5 -   2. Lee C G. 2009. Chitin, chitinases and chitinase-like proteins in     allergic inflammation and tissue remodeling. Yonsei Med J 50: 22-30 -   3. Cutler J E, Deepe G S, Jr., Klein B S. 2007. Advances in     combating fungal diseases: vaccines on the threshold. Nat Rev     Microbiol 5: 13-28 -   4. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Casadevall A, Galgiani J N, Odds F C, Rex     J H. 2010. An insight into the antifungal pipeline: selected new     molecules and beyond. Nat Rev Drug Discov 9: 719-27 -   5. Pfaller M A, Diekema D J. 2007. Epidemiology of invasive     candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev     20: 133-63 -   6. Casadevall A, Pirofski L A. 2007. Antibody-mediated protection     through cross-reactivity introduces a fungal heresy into     immunological dogma. Infect Immun 75: 5074-8 -   7. Spellberg B. 2007. Prospects for and barriers to a fungal     vaccine. Expert Opin Biol Ther 7: 1785-8 -   8. Cassone A, Torosantucci A. 2006. Opportunistic fungi and fungal     infections: the challenge of a single, general antifungal vaccine.     Expert Rev Vaccines 5: 859-67 -   9. Torosantucci A, Bromuro C, Chiani P, De Bernardis F, Berti F,     Galli C, Norelli F, Bellucci C, Polonelli L, Costantino P, Rappuoli     R, Cassone A. 2005. A novel glyco-conjugate vaccine against fungal     pathogens. J Exp Med 202: 597-606 -   10. Xin H, Dziadek S, Bundle D R, Cutler J E. 2008. Synthetic     glycopeptide vaccines combining beta-mannan and peptide epitopes     induce protection against candidiasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105:     13526-31 -   11. Han Y, Cutler J E. 1995. Antibody response that protects against     disseminated candidiasis. Infect Immun 63: 2714-9 -   12. Rachini A, Pietrella D, Lupo P, Torosantucci A, Chiani P,     Bromuro C, Proietti C, Bistoni F, Cassone A, Vecchiarelli A. 2007.     An anti-beta-glucan monoclonal antibody inhibits growth and capsule     formation of Cryptococcus neoformans in vitro and exerts     therapeutic, anticryptococcal activity in vivo. Infect Immun 75:     5085-94 -   13. Torosantucci A, Chiani P, Bromuro C, De Bernardis F, Palma A S,     Liu Y, Mignogna G, Maras B, Colone M, Stringaro A, Zamboni S, Feizi     T, Cassone A. 2009. Protection by anti-beta-glucan antibodies is     associated with restricted beta-1,3 glucan binding specificity and     inhibition of fungal growth and adherence. PLoS One 4: e5392 -   14. Bromuro C, Torosantucci A, Chiani P, Conti S, Polonelli L,     Cassone A. 2002. Interplay between protective and inhibitory     antibodies dictates the outcome of experimentally disseminated     Candidiasis in recipients of a Candida albicans vaccine. Infect     Immun 70: 5462-70 -   15. Bredehorst R, Pomato N, Scheel O, Thiem J. 1998. U.S. Pat. No.     5,705,634A -   16. Nakao E. 1994. U.S. Pat. No. 5,312,908 -   17. Nishimura T, Eto E, Yamad T. 1989. U.S. Pat. No. 4,804,750A -   18. Gislason J, Einarsson J M, How N C, Bahrke S. 2009. Patent No.     US20090281058A1 -   19. Lenardon M D, Munro C A, Gow N A. 2010. Chitin synthesis and     fungal pathogenesis. Curr Opin Microbiol 13: 416-23 -   20. Baker L G, Specht C A, Donlin M J, Lodge J K. 2007. Chitosan,     the deacetylated form of chitin, is necessary for cell wall     integrity in Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 6: 855-67 -   21. Latge J P. 2007. The cell wall: a carbohydrate armour for the     fungal cell. Mol Microbiol 66: 279-90 -   22. Levitz S M. 2010. Innate recognition of fungal cell walls. PLoS     Pathog 6: e1000758 -   23. Nitz M, Bundle D. R. 2001. J. Synthesis of Di- to Hexasaccharide     1,2-Linked-Mannopyranan Oligomers, a Terminal S-Linked     Tetrasaccharide Congener and the Corresponding BSA Glycoconjugates J     Org Chem 66: 8411-2324. Antinori S, 2013. New Insights into     HIV/AIDS-Associated Cryptococcosis. ISRN AIDS 471363 -   25. Rappleye C A, Eissenberg L G, Goldman E. 2007. Histoplasma     capsulatum alpha-(1,3)-glucan blocks innate immune recognition by     the beta-glucan receptor. PNAS. 104(4):1366-70 -   26. Fujikawa T. et al. 2012. Surface alpha 1,3-Glucan Facilitates     Fungal Stealth Infection by Interfering with Innate Immunity in     Plants PLOS Pathogens 8:1e1002882 -   27. Reese, A. J. et al. 2007. Loss of cell wall alpha (1-3) glucan     affects Cryptococcus neoformans from ultrastructure to virulence.     Mol. Microbiol. 63, 1385-1398. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of immunizing a mammalian subject against a fungal pathogen, comprising administering to the subject an immunogenic amount of a compound, wherein the compound comprises: one or more polysaccharide moieties, each independently represented by the formula β(1→4)-[GlcNH—R]_(n)-2,5-anhydromannose, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to 500, R is H or an acyl group, and the one or more polysaccharide moieties are chitin/chitosan mixed polymers; and an immunogenic carrier protein covalently linked to the one or more polysaccharide moieties at the anhydromannose group of the polysaccharide moieties.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein n is a positive integer from 3 to
 100. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein n is a positive integer from 6 to
 50. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the acyl group R is an acetyl group.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein at least 30% of the acyl groups in the compound are acetyl.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the carrier protein is tetanus toxoid.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the carrier protein is diphtheria toxoid.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the carrier protein is a fungal protein virulence factor.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound further comprises one or more linear β-mannan or glucan epitopes covalently linked to the carrier protein.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the β-mannan is a β-1,2-mannose tetrasaccharide.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein one of the one or more glucan epitopes is a linear α-1,3-glucan epitope.
 12. The method of claim 9, wherein one of the one or more glucan epitopes is a linear β-1,3-glucan epitope.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the carrier protein is covalently linked to the one or more polysaccharide moieties via one or more immunogenic scaffold moieties.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein each of the scaffold moieties is selected from the group consisting of a polysaccharide, a peptidoglycan, a polypeptide, and a polyglycerol.
 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the scaffold is linear.
 16. The method of claim 13, wherein the scaffold is dendrimeric.
 17. The method of claim 13, wherein the compound further comprises one or more linear β-mannan or glucan epitopes covalently linked to the carrier protein or the scaffold.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the β-mannan is a β-1,2-mannose tetrasaccharide.
 19. The method of claim 17, wherein one of the one or more glucan epitopes is a linear α-1,3-glucan epitope.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein one of the one or more glucan epitopes is a linear β-1,3-glucan epitope.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a human subject. 